Instruments

Shamisen | Drums | Tsuzumi | Taiko | Flutes | Takebue | Nohkan | Voice | Geza | O-daiko | Hyoushigi | Tsuke

Shamisen

Hear a shamisen

The shamisen (or jamisen) first came to Japan via the Ryukyu Islands (c.1560) and its use appears to have grown out of the biwa narrative tradition. In fact it was substituted for the biwa by storytellers in the Osaka-Kyoto district. By the 17th century it had developed many different styles of performance. It came to fulfil an important role in accompanying dancing in the teahouses, and became the primary instrument in the puppet theatre to accompany joururi. It underpins much of the musical content of kabuki appearing in all of the ensembles, and in some ways could be considered as fulfilling the same role as a harpsichord in Baroque opera.

The shamisen consists of a sound box made from four pieces of wood assembled into a box shape covered with either cat or dog skin, from which a neck projects supporting three tuneable strings. The neck will break down into three pieces for ease of transport.

The strings can be adjusted to three different tunings during the course of performance each of which can have an associated concept of mood. These are not fixed basic pitches and can move depending upon the requirements of the singer to be accompanied.

Hon-choshi

B-E-B (solemn music)

Ni-agari

B-F#-B (cheerful music)

San-sagari

B-E-A (melancholic or serene music)

An additional characteristic of the shamisen's sound is the reverberation (sawari) caused by the lower string against the neck. This is not replicated on the upper two strings. Double stops are used sparingly.

The shamisen is used as a solo and accompanying instrument in both the chobo and the debayashi. It also appears as a section instrument in the latter when several can be used in unison. Sometimes an additional line is added an octave above the main melody. This is provided by the uwajoushi shamisen which has an extra nut placed on the neck of the instrument to facilitate access to the higher notes. It has the same effect as using a guitar capo.

Shamisen players use a large plectrum (bachi) which lends a percussive effect to the sound as the technique of playing involves both the plucking of the string and the slap of the bachi against the skin of the instrument at the same time.

There was no attempt at the formalization of a system of notation until the 19th century. Conventional Western notation was found to be unsatisfactory because of the considerations of freedom needed in reflecting the subtle variations of both rhythm and pitch. This was particularly the case with vocal lines. Prior to this a form of solfège (kuchi-jamisen) was as a memory aid for remembering the patterns essential to shamisen melodic construction. It was however unable to show accurately the pitch of the notes.

Drums

• to accompany entrances and exits
• to help delineate the character on stage (deiri bayashi)
• to accompany dances (maigoto bayashi)

Tsuzumi

Hear a tsuzumi (with kakegoe)

The ko-tsuzumi and the o-tsuzumi (hip drum), appear both in the hayashi ensemble of the geza, and as a subset of the debayashi. Both drums are hour glass shaped and are struck with the hand. The ko-tsuzumi is played on the shoulder and the o-tsuzumi on the hip. In a kabuki performance, the tsuzumi perform as a single pair, or sometimes double or triple the line with additional performers.

Both are made by lashing two heads to the body of the drum with a rope that in turn can be tightened by an additional rope which runs around the middle of the drum. This second rope enables the slight wavers in pitch characteristic of their sound. Further tuning of the drumheads can be made by the application of small layers of paper (choushigami) to the non-playing head.

It is possible to produce five different sounds on the ko-tsuzumi, and they are onomatopoeically listed as:

Pon

The centre of the head is struck with two or four fingers depending upon the school of drumming. The tension rope is held loosely until the moment of impact when an increase in the tension produces a waver in the sound

Pu

Similar to "pon" but played with index finger

Ta

Produced by using two fingers at the edge of the drum that is under maximum tension making a sharp "crack"

Chi

A lighter version of "ta" played with the ring finger

Tsu

After striking the drum, the playing hand is left on the head allowing the rear one to produce the tone

The sound of the o-tsuzumi is much drier and brighter than that of the ko-tsuzumi. To assist this, drum skin is heated prior to the performance, and the performer wears papier maché thimbles on the playing hand.

Tsu

A strong beat

Chon

The weakest beat

Don

Similar to the "tsu" of the ko-tsuzumi where the playing hand is left on the head after striking the drum

Taiko

Within the debayashi the taiko generally forms a loose partnership rhythmically with the nohkan. One or two drums can be used. A separate instrument performs as part of the geza ensemble. Again, mnemonics are used as an aid to remembering the placement of the drum stokes which, like the o-tsuzumi, tend to refer to the strength of the stroke rather than the change in timbre.

Tsu and ku

Weak (shuu) strokes with right and left sticks

Te and re

Medium sized (chuu) strokes with right and left sticks

Ten

Large (dai) strokes

Additional sounds are produced on the taiko by leaving one of the sticks to rest on the head whilst striking with the other stick producing a short roll (osaeru), or placing both sticks lightly upon the drum to produce a deadened sound (osameru).

There is also an element of pantomime to the way in which the taiko is played. By way of example, the execution of a kashira starts with both sticks being raised slowly from the drum. When they reach chest height, the left stick continues to a position over the right shoulder whilst the right stick returns to the drum. When the left stick reaches the right shoulder, the right stick is suddenly raised high above the right shoulder as if poised for a large stroke, instead, the left stick gives a strong glancing blow soon followed by a large stroke with the right stick. Kakegoe make this action even more dramatic.(more)

Flutes

Two flutes feature in kabuki music, both played by the same musician. They appear in the geza and the debayashi.

Takebue

The takebue (sometimes called yokobue or shinobue), is made from bamboo and is used most frequently in the odoriji sections of nagauta during which it plays continuously. Generally, it embroiders the vocal or shamisen lines added frequent melismas throughout the melody

Whenever the action on stage requires either the debayashi or the geza to imply a more rural situation, because of its background as a folk instrument the takebue is used independently from the shamisen. In this context it will frequently play tunes from the repertoire of matsuri bayashi music.

Nohkan

This flute has its origins in the Noh theatre. Like the takebue it is also made from bamboo, however the construction is different. The bamboo is cut into strips, turned inside out, and bound together with cherry bark. Between the mouth hole and the first finger hole a small cylinder is inserted, which disturbs the acoustic properties of the flute. This causes the interval of an octave at which a flute would usually overblow to diminish the higher the fundamental climbs.

Like the other instruments used in kabuki, it does not have a formalized notation. However, it does use a form of solmization (shouka) to determine approximate pitches, but the general clouding of the tonality it produces within a performance makes it difficult to specify a definite tonality.

Used sparingly, it is most often employed whenever noh derived material is used in the debayashi. In this ensemble it forms a loose rhythmic partnership with the taiko. From the geza also it emphasizes a link with Noh drama, but in addition it is used to reproduce effects that augment action on stage such as the appearance of a ghost. (more)

Voice

The voice combines with the shamisen and plays an important role as either solo or chorus in all the kabuki ensembles. The main purpose is to narrate the parts of the story not given over to the actor's dialogue. Sometimes however the singers are used to add further vocal material which may highlight the character of a particular actor or situation (e.g. in a mountain scene they may simply recount a list of mountain place names). The manner of tone production is dissimilar to conventional Western methods and produces a high pitched and strained quality to the voice that requires a great deal of stamina to sustain.

The vocal line moves stepwise around the onkai is highly ornamented adding shadings and subtleties of interpretation (fushi mawashi) to the shamisen tune around which it weaves sometimes in anticipation, but mainly following just behind. The theory is that this will reduce any conflict between the execution of the melody by the shamisen player and the singer enabling a greater clarity of observation of the melodic line on the part of the audience. Occasionally the singer resorts to short phrases similar to the "sprechstimme" style of delivery used by Berg in his opera Lulu.

Offstage instruments and the geza

Unlike the other instrumental ensembles in kabuki, a form of score (tsukechou) details the order and placement of the geza patterns and is used to coordinate the music from the geza with the action on stage.

In addition to a noh hayashi ensemble with additional taiko, shamisen and chanter, Malm lists six other drums, eighteen gongs, cymbals, wooden beaters, flutes, noise-makers and bird calls which are used off stage. They can serve a variety of purposes. Sometimes the grouping of hayashi and shamisen will supply the music when the debayashi is silent, sometimes the use of certain instrumental combinations will create a specific atmosphere. The geza can even be required to add specific sound effects such as the sound of insects. The following is a very abbreviated list of some of the instruments with their uses.

O-daiko

Hear an o-daiko (playing a dorodoro pattern, with a nohkan, symbolizing the appearance of a ghost)

The o-daiko is one of the principal instruments of the geza in which it plays a substantial role. It is a large membranophone with two tacked heads, one of which is played with two long tapered sticks. It has a long association with kabuki and was originally sounded from the yagura to summon the audience to a kabuki performance, or to sound an alarm if the audience became rowdy. Important use is made of the o-daiko to create special moods. For example there are drum patterns for the sound of wind, for waves, and for falling snow. It can also be used to added further colour to the nagauta music.

Surigane

This small gong can be hand held or suspended and is played on the indented side with a bone mallet. It is associated with the matsuri bayashi tradition and is used whenever it is necessary to evoke a "folk" feeling.

Hontsuri-gane

The sounding of this bell conveys the impression that the action is related, or refers to a temple

Taiko

Two taiko are included in the instrumentation of the geza. One of their roles is to play set patterns with the nohkan at the beginning and end (uchidashi) of a play.

Matsu-mushi

A small gong set on three legs used to mimic the sound of insects. In fact its name means "pine insect".

Hyoushigi (or Ki)

Separate from the geza, hyoushigi (or ki)are two wooden clappers which are struck together. They are used in special patterns to help co-ordinate cues and give stage directions. For example prior to the start of the play the ki will be be struck together 11 times to signal to the audience that the play is about to start. The interval between each "click" diminishes until by the end the sound is accelerating rapidly. (more)

Tsuke

The tsuke are smaller than the hyoushigi (or ki) and rather than being beaten together, they are used on a flat board stage left. of the stage. They are used to punctuate and reinforce the movements and dialogue of the actors on stage. For example they can be used to reinforce the sound of "blows" being delivered in a tachimawari much like a like the slapstick in a traditional pantomime. (more)