History and Social Context

Kabuki is almost exclusively an Edo period dramatic form and its development was influenced by the trends of government and society during this time.

Edo Period (1603 - 1868)

The Edo or Tokugawa period in Japanese history marked a prolonged period of calm after the upheaval of the Kamakura and Muromachi periods. As the architect of the peace, Tokugawa Ieyasu was declared "sei-i tai-shogun" (literally barbarian subduing great general) by the Emperor. He established himself as ruler in the new capital, Edo (present day Tokyo), and formed a government (Bakufu) which was sustained by the Tokugawa line until the Meiji period started in 1868. More importantly, the Edo period marked 250 years of complete isolation from the rest of the world, during which time Japan's unique cultural heritage developed away from outside influences.

Following the turmoil of earlier times, in order to establish control of the population, the government implemented a policy of "control by segregation". This placed considerable restrictions of movement upon all sectors of society both geographically, and between social classes. As the Edo period progressed, there was increasing resistance to this method of government as the circumstances of the population changed. In particular, the increasing affluence of the merchant class (chounin) and its subsequent evolution into an influential economic force was perceived as a genuine threat to the status quo.

Accompanying the chounin's increase in wealth came their desire for lavish and more accessible forms of entertainment. The aristocratic but arcane noh theatre did not satisfy their desires, and they required more sophistication than the folk traditions had to offer. Something appropriate to the bustle of a growing commercial metropolis. It is from this background that kabuki and the puppet theatre emerged. Rather than restricted by the government's imposition of rule, the opposite happened, and theatre, music, and art in general flourished. This in turn provided a catalyst for the mixing of social layers as the theatre began to attract audiences from all levels of society. The government perceived this intermingling, particularly within kabuki, as a genuine threat to the fabric of society, and as a result regulations and controls became increasingly far-reaching and draconian. In many ways this is a story of how kabuki managed to flout them!

Kabuki

The three Japanese characters for kabuki separately refer to "dance, music, and craft or skill". Originally however, kabuki was written with different characters which meant "tilted" or out of "balance", the implication being something that might be considered exotic, racy or debauched. In fact the early history of kabuki had more in common with vaudeville and burlesque than its origin in temple dance implies.

The shrine dancer Okuni is first documented as setting up a performance area in the dry riverbed at Kyoto in 1603. The dances that she and her fellow dancers performed were a mixture of folk dance and nembutsu odori, a form of religious dance, however the nature of the dances were far less sacred than this suggests. The performances became increasingly popular amongst the lower classes and the number of dancing troupes proliferated in imitation.

As the crowds became more boisterous, the governing body became increasingly concerned until in 1608, after a brawl occurred between rival supporters, the Shougun banished the actors and dancers from the town setting aside a place for them in close proximity to the pleasure quarters. Much of the early history is connected with the relationship that developed between the theatre and these centres of entertainment for the common man, or "floating world" (ukiyo) as they became known.

Actors were considered social outcasts and the theatre managers were disparagingly known as kawara kijiki (riverbed beggars). In fact it was only by the 19th century that the status of actors was raised to that of other artists. If they moved outside of the pleasure district they were obliged to wear a large umbrella shaped reed hat (amigasa) which would hide their faces, the same type of hat worn by criminals.

This segregation was very much a part of the Tokugawa ethos of government. Social and physical barriers were created in order to maintain the status quo, and in an effort to control the population all non-aristocrats were grouped into organised clans or guilds between which it was made impossible to move. In fact even today, the kabuki clan families control much of the activities within the theatre and it is only with some difficulty that outsiders can enter their profession. This system is perpetuated symbolically to this day by performers taking the acting house name or yago of earlier related actors when they themselves reach performing maturity. For example from the Ichikawa family, Ichikawa Danjuro I (founder of the aragoto style of acting) lived 1660 -1704, whereas Ichikawa Danjuro IX (leading actor of the Meiji era) lived 1838-1903. Currently the actor holding this name is Ichikawa Danjuro XII.

The authorities began to recognise that because of the burgeoning popularity, it was necessary to permit kabuki performances but in a regulated way, and licences for the building of theatres were granted in the main cities (Kyoto, Edo and Osaka). Eventually in 1629, as the performances became more boisterous and overtly risqué, women were banned from performing. Kabuki at this stage was not the sole province of female performers. There were also performing troupes of boys and young men (wakashu) and they supplanted the women. In fact many of the performances also included men, but in the spirit of the time, it was often the case that the roles being played would involve some element of sexual cross-over.

In 1652, as a result of a brawl between two sumurai (both rivals for the attentions of one of the young male actors), the authorities were once again forced to take action and they banned wakashu kabuki. After entreaties from the theatre managers it was agreed that the theatres could open once more, however there were restrictions. The most significant rule for kabuki was that no longer could boys perform in the theatre, only males over the age of fourteen. The resulting form became known as yarou kabuki, or fellows kabuki, and the exclusion of women from the stage lead to the invention of an acting role unique to kabuki. That of the onnagata (women person), which became an extremely specialised role requiring great dedication. Development of the mature form of kabuki dates from this period.

From this time also the puppet theatre also was experiencing great success, however it performed in direct competition with kabuki. In an endeavour to maintain its audience, acting styles (maruhon) taken from the puppet theatre were adapted to the kabuki stage, and devices such as the gidayu were imported. Even complete plays were adapted for the kabuki stage. During the Genroku period (1688 - 1704) kabuki enjoyed a dazzling popularity unprecedented in Japanese history. The quality of the plays improved radically particularly under the influence of Chikamatsu Monzaemon (1653-1724) who originally wrote for the puppet theatre. Many of the famous kabuki plays are adaptions of his puppet dramas. At this time also, kabuki drew on other forms of drama such as noh and kyougen for stimulus.

Kabuki was now drawing its audience from every level of society, much to the consternation of the government who considered it a pernicious influence. In 1714, when it was discovered that a high ranking lady official in the service of the mother of the Shougun was involved in an illicit relationship with one of the principal actors the government acting uncompromisingly. Punishments ranging from banishment to execution for anyone who new of the affair. All theatres were closed for three months and the theatre to which the offending actor was attached was destroyed and all property sold. This became known as the Ejima affair, named after the lady at the centre of the infraction.

After three months, theatres were allowed to reopen but only in a strictly regulated fashion. In keeping with the Tokugawa system of government most of the regulations were concerned with the discouragement of opportunities for secret encounters between class types. No covered walkways were permitted between the theatres and the conveniently situated teahouses of the pleasure district. Blinds were not permitted to conceal the occupants of the sajiki of which only two levels were now to be permitted. The resourcefulness of the theatre managers of the time is well illustrated by their response to this. They maintained the usual three tiers, but in deference to the authorities called the second tier chuu nikkai (mezzanine, or middle level) and the third tier hon nikkai (second level)

From this time forward kabuki maintained its popularity with little major upset until the end of the Edo period, by which time actors were no longer considered pariahs by the authorities.